Pratyaksha (Perception)

Nyaya Sutra: perception is knowledge produced by contact of sense organ and object, which is avyapadeshya (not dependent on verbal designation), avyabhicari (non-erroneous) and vyavasayatmaka (determinate). Buddhist logic differs: Dignaga defines it as kalpanapodha (free from conceptual construction); Dharmakirti adds abhranta (non-erroneous). For Buddhists the object of perception is svalakshana (unique particular) and the object of inference is samanyalakshana (universal). Samkhya defines it as the ascertainment of each object through contact with the senses.

By nature:

• Nirvikalpaka (indeterminate): first bare apprehension; grasps the object without qualifiers (just "something"). Buddhists accept only this as valid.

• Savikalpaka (determinate): grasps the object with qualifiers ("This is a cow"). Nyaya and Mimamsa accept both as valid.

• Pratyabhijna (recognition): "This is the same Devadatta I met earlier."

By contact:

• Laukika (ordinary): six kinds of sense-object contact (sannikarsha).

• Alaukika (extraordinary): three kinds.

Memory: the first three go with the substance (pot) through the eye or skin; the next two go with sound through the ear; the last is for absence.

1. Samanyalakshana: perception of all members of a class through the universal (seeing one smoke-instance gives knowledge of smokeness, and thus of all smoke). It is the basis for Nyaya's account of the universality of vyapti.

2. Jnanalakshana: a previous cognition acts as the contact (seeing sandalwood and perceiving "fragrant sandalwood"; seeing ice and "feeling" it cold).

3. Yogaja: perception of past, future, subtle and distant objects by yogic power. It is of two kinds: yukta (those in constant meditation, perceiving all) and yunjana (those in the process of attaining power, who need support).

Other points: Anuvyavasaya is introspective awareness of a cognition ("I know that I know the pot"). Internal states (pleasure, pain) are perceived by manas (mind). The organs are constituted by elements: smell by earth, taste by water, sight by fire, touch by air, hearing by akasha (ether). In Samkhya the organs derive from ahamkara.

Jain view of knowledge: Pratyaksha includes avadhi, manahparyaya and kevala; paroksha (indirect) has five forms: mati-based smriti, pratyabhijna, tarka, anumana and agama. (The standard memory list is smriti, pratyabhijna, tarka, anumana, agama.)