Cybersecurity

Cyber ethics are the moral principles for using computers and the internet responsibly: respect privacy, do not hack, do not pirate software, do not plagiarise, do not spread false information, give credit and be honest. Netiquette (network etiquette) is the set of rules for polite online behaviour: be respectful, avoid ALL CAPS, do not spam, verify before sharing, respect copyright, protect others' privacy and think before posting.

Cybercrime is a crime in which a computer or network is the tool, the target or the place of the crime. Common forms:

• Hacking: unauthorised access to systems. Ethical (white hat) hackers test security with permission, black hat hackers attack, grey hat lies between.

• Phishing: fake e-mails or sites to steal credentials. Vishing is by voice call, smishing by SMS, spear phishing targets a specific person, and pharming redirects users to fake sites.

• Identity theft, cyberstalking, cyberbullying, online fraud, sextortion.

• Spoofing: disguising as a trusted source. Spam: unsolicited bulk messages.

• Denial of Service (DoS) and Distributed DoS (DDoS): flooding a service to make it unavailable.

• Man-in-the-Middle (MITM): intercepting communication. SQL injection: attacking databases through input. Zero-day: exploit of an unknown vulnerability.

• Social engineering: manipulating people rather than machines.

Malware is malicious software.

CIA triad: Confidentiality (only authorised access), Integrity (data is not altered), Availability (data is accessible when needed). Authentication means verifying identity. Authorisation means granting permissions.

Measures: strong passwords and a password manager, two-factor or multi-factor authentication (2FA/MFA), OTP, antivirus and anti-malware, firewall, encryption (converts data to unreadable cipher text, symmetric uses one key and asymmetric uses a public-private key pair), VPN, regular updates and patches, backups, HTTPS sites, careful use of public Wi-Fi, avoiding unknown links and attachments, and digital literacy training. Digital signature uses asymmetric cryptography to give authenticity, integrity and non-repudiation. Digital certificates are issued by a Certifying Authority (CA). Biometrics are fingerprint, iris and face. CAPTCHA distinguishes humans from bots.

• Information Technology Act, 2000: India's primary cyber law, in force from 17 October 2000, based on the UNCITRAL Model Law on E-Commerce. It gives legal recognition to electronic records, e-contracts and digital signatures, and defines cybercrimes and penalties. Amended in 2008 (added provisions on cyber terrorism, identity theft and data protection).

• Important sections: 43 (damage to computer or data without permission, compensation), 66 (computer-related offences, hacking), 66C (identity theft), 66D (cheating by personation), 66E (privacy violation), 66F (cyber terrorism), 67 (publishing obscene material), 67B (child sexual abuse material), 69 (government interception and monitoring powers), 70 (protected systems) and 72 (breach of confidentiality). Section 66A (offensive messages) was struck down by the Supreme Court in Shreya Singhal v Union of India (2015).

• CERT-In (Indian Computer Emergency Response Team, 2004, under MeitY) is the national agency for incident response. I4C (Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre) and the National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal (cybercrime.gov.in) and helpline 1930 support reporting.

• Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023: India's data-protection law covering consent, rights of data principals and duties of data fiduciaries. Rules under it are being implemented in phases. Check the latest status before the exam.

• National Cyber Security Policy, 2013.

• Intellectual Property Rights (IPR): copyright, patent, trademark, design, geographical indication.

• Copyright Act, 1957 (amended 2012) protects original literary, artistic, musical and software works. In India, copyright lasts for the author's life plus 60 years. Fair dealing allows limited use for criticism, review, research and education.

• Plagiarism: presenting others' words or ideas as one's own. Forms: copy-paste, paraphrasing without credit, self-plagiarism, mosaic plagiarism. Tools: Turnitin, Ouriginal, iThenticate, and Shodhshuddhi in India.

• UGC (Promotion of Academic Integrity and Prevention of Plagiarism in HEIs) Regulations, 2018: similarity up to 10% is excluded from penalties (Level 0), 10–40% (Level 1), 40–60% (Level 2) and above 60% (Level 3), with increasing penalties.

• Creative Commons and open licences allow lawful reuse. Software piracy is illegal copying.

• Digital footprint: trail of data left online. Cookies: small files stored by websites.